Analysis of Comments on a New York Times Article Essay

The article. â€Å"Forced From Executive Pay to Hourly Wage. † which was written by Michael Luo and was published in the New York Times last February 28. 2009. fundamentally told the narrative of people who used to gain five or six-figure sums per twelvemonth. are now being paid hourly minimal rewards. One illustration in the article was the instance of Mark Cooper. who used to gain $ 70. 000 as a security director for Fortune 500 Company in the United States and who oversees a budget of $ 1. 2 million. Nine months ago. he lost his occupation and now he is gaining $ 12 an hr in his occupation at his friend’s janitorial services company. Although the article itself is appealing plenty. it is besides interesting to observe the readers’ remarks about it. As of now. there are 300 remarks about the article and upon reexamining most of them. it can be surmised that each reader who commented had significantly different point of views and sentiments about the narrative told in the New York Times article. Obviously. these readers adhere to different moral codifications which are seen through their responses. In general. the readers who commented on the article can be divided into two groups: one group lauded the brave act of Mark Cooper while the other criticized the manner of authorship and the elusive message that New York Times author used in the article. One of the reader’s who praised the article narrative admired the bravery of Mr. Cooper as he was able to take down his pride and found ways to supply for his household even if it means that he has to scour lavatories and hold his salary dramatically reduced from five figures to an hourly pay without any benefits. In a sense. this group extremely regarded the value of difficult work and get downing all over once more in a dignified manner. Most of their remarks fundamentally indicated that Mr. Cooper is non entirely and that there are 100s of Americans who have similar â€Å"riches to rags† narratives. These readers. based on their remarks. besides believed that there is no shame being hapless every bit long as 1 has a dignified and lawful occupation. On other manus. the other group of readers who commented on the article criticized the New York Times for insinuating that those who work blue-collar occupations are lower signifiers of human existences than those who work white-collar 1s. They see the article as know aparting to Americans who have been populating their lives below the poorness line for a long clip even before the current economic crisis. For illustration. one reader lamented that article more or less showed that a $ 12-an-hour occupation is an indecorous manner of life. which is non true. In add-on. one reader did non experience sorry for Mr. Cooper and commented that he had a batch to be grateful for because he lives in an above norm house and was able to populate a rich life. To this reader. the economic crisis makes everyone in America equal because they are fighting to do ends meet. However. what’s common in all the readers’ responses is that they could all associate to the troubles experienced by the people depicted in the article. In fact some of the readers. who are obviously from different walks of life. shared their ain narratives in their remarks. In other words. the individual factor that binds all the readers who commented is the adversity brought approximately by the fiscal crisis in America. In a manner. the article’s remarks show two things: one is that there are a batch of Americans who are so used to a good life that they are apparently caught off-guard when a lay waste toing fiscal crisis like this hits them and the other is that due to the crisis. most Americans would be willing to take on any occupation merely to last. But the remarks besides indicated that Americans are more incorporate in accomplishing a common end which is to retrieve from the lay waste toing effects of the crisis and reconstruct their lives. Works Cited Luo. Mark. â€Å"Forced From Executive Pay to Hourly Wage. † 28 February 2009. New York Times. 4 March 2009 & lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. nytimes. com/2009/03/01/us/01survival. hypertext markup language? pagewanted=1 & A ; _r=2 & A ; sq=executive % 20janitor & A ; st=cse & A ; scp=1 & gt ; .

Search Engine Data Collection

Search Engine Data Collection Citizens’ personal information has always been actively sought by government authorities and by private businesses, and up until recently, has been kept exclusively by the institutions requesting the information. However, those days of confidentiality are over, as the world becomes increasingly structured upon the evolution of the Internet.Today, government authorities and private businesses have a multitude of ways to access personal information that is submitted through the World Wide Web, one of these methods being the surveillance and tracking of search requests through online search engines such as Google (Search Engine Privacy). The collection of personally identifiable data by search engines threatens consumer privacy and violates the US Constitution’s Fourth Amendment, which guarantees â€Å"the right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures† (Electro nic Privacy).As the privacy rights of citizens are increasingly being compromised, governments need to implement stricter electronic privacy laws regarding search engine data collection to protect citizens from a world of blurred boundaries. The evolution of the World Wide Web has proved to be advantageous for private businesses that have prospered from the wealth of information that is granted to them through search engines. Search engine data analysis provides companies with crucial knowledge about their consumers, allowing businesses to maximize their profits by catering to their consumers’ needs and desires.An example of this is the analysis of search request trends to predict when prom dresses would sell best. One would assume that with most school proms taking place in May that March through April would be the ideal time to display prom dress content online; however, search engine data research concludes that the month with the most searches for â€Å"prom dress† is January. Companies can then take this information and capitalize by making wise choices in terms of timing (Tancer 59-68).Using consumers’ search request information to predict trends to maximize profits is a relatively benign example of how data entered into search engines can be used. Search requests contain highly personal information about consumers, such as their medical issues, religious background, political partiality, and sexual orientation, opening the door to behavioral marketing (Search Engine Privacy). By collecting information about consumer interests and habits, companies essentially have a portal into the minds of their target market, which they can use and abuse at their discretion.Another threat that search engine data collection poses to citizens is the risk of leaked – whether intentional or accidental – personal information. Although data collection companies claim that they screen their clients thoroughly before providing them with info rmation, critics say that the industry's screening process is negligent (Electronic Privacy). In May 1996, for example, a television reporter based in California requested the personal information of 5,000 children from Metromail Corp. , using the name of Richard Allen Davis, a well-known convicted child murderer in the state.The company released a list of more than 5,000 children's names, ages, addresses and phone numbers to this undercover reporter at the cost of $277 (Electronic Privacy). This incident exemplifies the potential dangers of releasing information to third parties and the risks of not employing a thorough screening practice in the process. Another incident of leaked information involves a 62-year-old widow, Thelma Arnold, who, along with 657,000 others, had her personal search inquiries leaked by AOL.AOL had intended the release of this information to benefit academic researchers and assigned numbers in place of names to protect the anonymity of users; however, they did not consider how easy it was to determine the identities of these users through simple investigation. As a result of this lapse in foresight by AOL detailed records of the personal search inquiries of Thelma Arnold and 657,000 other Americans are still circulating online today (Barbaro and Zeller Jr. ). Although search engine data collection has its risks, supporters argue that these companies offer a service that ultimately benefits the consumer (Electronic Privacy).Solveig Singleton, director of information studies at the Cato Institute, says that if â€Å"’privacy alarmists’ succeed in achieving regulation of the industry, consumers will ultimately be harmed†. Singleton believes that â€Å"consumers benefit by sharing information about themselves because businesses can then design and market new products that are tailored to consumers' needs† (Electronic Privacy). Examining the viewpoints of both critics and supporters of data collecting companies, the essential question that needs to be considered is whether or not the development of new products for a arget audience is worth risking the privacy and safety of consumers. Despite the fact that many citizens have voiced their concerns over electronic privacy matters, the government has still been reluctant to interfere with the information industry, fearing that regulation could hinder an industry that is growing exponentially and contributing to the U. S. economy. To ensure that this industry’s economic potential is fully realized, government officials are prepared to adopt a â€Å"laissez-faire† approach to Internet business (Electronic Privacy).As the use of the Internet becomes more and more pertinent to the daily lives of citizens, the concept of privacy is being challenged. Although the government is aware that it should be seeking ways to protect its citizens, it fears at the same time that enforcing stricter online privacy rights will stunt the growth of p rivate businesses that thrive off consumers’ personal information. Ultimately, the issue of search engine privacy is a struggle to find harmony between two opposing entities: the protection of privacy rights of citizens and the growth of the information industry and private businesses.Unfortunately, at the moment, it is the privacy rights of citizens that are being compromised in this relationship. The government needs to create and strictly enforce specific laws pertaining to search engine data collection to deter today’s world from heading into a world like that in George Orwell’s 1984, a world in which â€Å"telescreens† monitor every citizen’s every move – a world with which our current online world shares frightening similarities.

Women in Media

‘The Objectification and Dismemberment of Women in the Media-A study on women portrayal in media’ Author: Jyoti jain, Lecturer, Amity Business School, Amity University Rajasthan, Jaipur (Raj. ) Abstract â€Å"Women’s bodies continue to be dismembered in advertising. Over and over again just one part of the body is used to sell products, which is, of course, the most dehumanizing thing you can do to someone. Not only is she a thing, but just one part of that thing is focused on. †Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jean Kilbourne Modern Advertising is an annual multi-billion Dollar business now-a-days. Advertising is everywhere – in magazines, on television, in movie theaters, on countless web pages, on busses, in subways and on milk-cartons. In fact, advertisements are so common in our times that we don’t even realize we are looking at them anymore. They invade not only our mailboxes, but our minds and in doing so, they contribute to the image we shape of women in our culture. Women are often presented in a dehumanized way in mass media images, their humanity sacrificed to display the artificial ideal. Women are not only turned into a thing, but the thing is broken down into component parts, each of which also represents an ideal form. She is dismembered. The debate, whether the portrayal of women in advertising is a serious or overrated issue, has been ongoing for quite some time and the final answer may never be found. Does the objectification of women in advertising have an adverse affect on society? Is there more violence against women as a result of these images? Are women being exploited? This paper tries to find out some of the cause and effect of these objectification and dismemberment on women in common. ******** Article type: Conceptual paper Key words: Dismemberment, Objectification, media, advertisement Sun Theme -Objectification of women in media Media that objectify women portray women as physical objects that can be looked at and acted upon– and fail to portray women as subjective beings with thoughts, histories, and emotions. In reality, human beings are both objects as subjects, as they are physical collections of molecules as well as individuals. To objectify someone, then, is to reduce someone exclusively to the level of object. Literature review A Definition of Media Objectification Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) coined the term, objectification theory, which suggests that our culture socializes girls and women to internalize an observer’s perspective on their own bodies. When young girls and women internalize an observer’s perspective of their own bodies, they live much of their life in the third-person. This is called self-objectification. The Objectification and Dismemberment of Women in Media In dismemberment ads the images highlight one part of women’s body neglect others. Magazine ads show a dismembered female body, with parts, instead of the whole, a practice that according to media activist, Jean Kilbourne, turns women into objects. Indeed, the objectification of women is evident in our society where women are constantly sexualized, but the dismemberment of women has yet to receive the consideration and exploration it deserves. Kilbourne (2002) suggested that the dismemberment of women is a monstrous problem in advertising. Typically, dismemberment ads employ female body parts for the purpose of selling a product. Dismemberment ads promote the idea of separate entities. These ads overtly and covertly encourage a woman to view her body as many individual pieces rather than a whole. Dismemberment ads leave many women feeling that their entire body is spoiled on account of one less than perfect feature. If a woman has less than satisfactory legs, then her potential for beauty is spoiled. In other words, if every body part is not flawless, then the possibility for beauty is ruined. Many women compare their bodies and sexuality to the eroticized images that are plastered on billboards and television and in magazines and movies (Kilbourne, 2002). With these images bombarding the mass media, it alters the reality and consciousness. This results in viewing women just as pleasure objects and toys; this is the first step in converting women into prostitute. Pleasure and sex which can be bought apart from woman’s soul: conditioning men into thinking of women as objects and pressurizing women to â€Å"conform† to  sex-beauty protocols this de-humanizing continues. It is not about what dress some one is wearing, its hyper reality and politicization of women’s bodies which we are objecting. Is Objectification a Problem? If considered generally to some degree, objectification is not necessarily a problem. It has been a tendency of human nature to look at others as physical beings, and individuals sometimes choose to present themselves as others primarily as objects through their dress or behavior. Objectivity becomes an issue when it is frequent, and when people are commonly presented only as objects and not as subjects as well. Women are frequently objectified in the media. When one see an image of a woman who is presented passively, and who demonstrates no other attributes aside from her physical or sexual being, that's objectification. Here are some contemporary examples of women who are commonly (although not always) portrayed as passive objects to be enjoyed exclusively as physical beings: †¢ Sexualized images of women in music videos †¢ Pinup posters of sexualized models †¢ Women in pornography †¢ Waitresses at Hooters Dismemberment ads focus on one part of the body, e. g. , a woman’s lips. Hence we get numerous images of lips, legs, breasts, butts, torsos – female body parts. Frequently in such images the head is missing, emphasizing that females are not valued for their intellect, but for their external form, their curves. Sut Jhally points out that presenting women as fragmented and disconnected body parts detracts from thinking about women as real people with their own intellect, feelings, dreams and desires. Women become objects for consumption. Measuring the Effects of Objectification through the Use of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale McKinley and Hyde (1996) developed the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS). The OBCS has three components: body surveillance, body shame, and beliefs about appearance control. 1. The first element of the OBCS is body surveillance, the degree to which women view themselves as an object. The feminine body has been constructed as an object to be looked at. This construction encourages women to view their bodies as if they were outside observers. Psychological research has proven that there are negative implications for constant self-surveillance and self-objectification (McKinley & Hyde, 1996; Fredrickson & Noll, 1997; Gettman & Roberts, 2004; Brooks, 1995). 2. The second element of the OBCS is body shame. This encompasses the internalization of cultural beauty standards. Sadly, when women experience internalization, the beauty standards appear to originate from the self, and many women believe that the attainment of these standards is possible, even in the face of considerable evidence to the contrary. The internalization of cultural beauty standards promotes body shame, body dissatisfaction, anxiety, and depression (McKinley & Hyde, 1996). 3. The third element of the OBCS is appearance control beliefs. The OBCS relies heavily on the underlying assumption that women are taught to believe that they are responsible for how they look and have the ability and obligation to alter them when necessary. Convincing women that they can achieve the impossible beauty standards of our culture can have very negative effects. There are certainly instances in which a woman has no control over her appearance, and if this is the case, the woman feels like a failure (McKinley , 1996). The Implications of Objectification Result shown by the different studied conducted on objectification and dismemberment shows that these may contribute to the development of several mental health risks, including eating disorders, unipolar depression, and sexual dysfunction. The subsequent studies attest to the negative implications of objectifying the female body. †¢ Depression & Anxiety Kuring and Tiggemann (2004) conducted a study consisting of 286 undergraduate students (115 men, 171 women). Participants were administered a questionnaire that contained â€Å"measures of self-objectification and self-surveillance, measures of the proposed consequences of self-objectification (body shame, appearance anxiety, flow and awareness of internal bodily states), as well as the outcome variables of disordered eating and depressive mood† (301). The study found that self-objectification leads to self-surveillance that, in turn, leads to body shame and appearance anxiety and in both greater disordered eating and more depressed mood. This finding is only true for women. Contrarily, men experienced much lower levels of self-surveillance. However, the men who presented evidence of self-surveillance experienced increased body shame and appearance anxiety. It is noteworthy that men showed no presence of self-objectification, thus suggesting that women are overwhelmingly more likely to experience self-objectification and self-surveillance. The rare cases in which men experience self-surveillance, similar emotions and reactions are present (Kuring & Tiggemann, 2004). †¢ Disorded eating habits Fredrickson, Noll, Quinn, Roberts, and Twenge (1998) found that self-objectification contributed to disorderd eating directly. The participants were administered the Self-Objectification Questionnaire, which required them to rank the order and the significance of 12 body attributes by how important each is to their physical self-concept. Their hypothesis posits that anticipated body shame encourages women to participate in disordered eating. Oftentimes, women who engage in disordered eating are attempting to maintain or gain body satisfaction and avoid the dreaded experience of body shame. Their hypothesis received support. Thus, it can be safely assumed that our culture’s practice of sexual-objectification of the female body has profoundly negative effects on women, and disordered eating is only one of many. †¢ Body Dissatisfaction Study conducted by Baker, Towell, and Sivyer (1997). This study investigated the role of visual media by examining the relationship between body image issatisfaction and abnormal eating attitudes in visually impaired women. Body dissatisfaction and abnormal eating attitudes are frequent effects of our culture’s promotion of an unattainable beauty ideal.. The results indicate that visual media may play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating (Baker et al. , 1997). †¢ Anxiety & sexual dissatisfaction In a study cond ucted by Gettman and Roberts (2004), the results demonstrated that the objectification prime led to significantly higher levels of appearance anxiety. It also led to a decrease in the appeal of physical aspects of sex. This is the first piece of evidence that lends support to the prediction that objectification contributes to sexual dysfunction (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Perhaps sexualizing and objectifying women actually decreases their sex drive rather than increases their sex drive. Conclusion â€Å"What women suffer, then, is more insidious than invisibility. It is deliberate erasure. † Undoubtedly, the sexualized portrayal of women in the media has significantly negative outcomes. These negative outcomes are not only affecting adult women but also young girls. The problematic representations of women in the media deserve our immediate attention, consideration, and research. Future studies should include: further exploration of the relational barriers between men and women, the centerfold syndrome and its effect on human intimacy, the appeal of physical sex to women and its relationship to the dismemberment of women in the media. References Baker, D. , Sivyer, R. , & Towell, T. (1997). Body Image Dissatisfaction and Eating Attitudes in Visually Impaired Women. London: Division of Psychology, University of West Minister. Brooks, G. (1995). The Centerfold Syndrome: How Men Can Overcome Objectification and Achieve Intimacy With Women. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Fredrickson, B. , Noll, S. , Roberts, T. , Twenge, J. , & Quinn, D. (1998). That Swimsuit Becomes You: Sex Differences in Self-Objectification, Restrained Eating, and Math Performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 269-284. Gettman, J. , & Roberts, T. (2004). Mere Exposure: Gender Differences in the Negative Effects of Priming a State of Self-Objectification. Sex Roles, 51, 17-27. Good, L. , Mills, A. , Murnen, S. , & Smolak, L. (2003). Thin, Sexy Women and Strong, Muscular Men: Grade-School Children’s Responses to Objectified Images of Women and Men. Sex Roles, 49, 427-437. Kilbourne, J. (2002). Beauty and the Beast of Advertising. Retrieved March 12, 2005 from http://www. medialit. org/reading_room/article40. html. McKinley, N. , & Hyde, J. (1996). The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale: Development and Validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 181-215. Roberts, S. , & Fredrickson, B. (1997). Objectification Theory: Toward Understanding Women’s Lived Experiences and Mental Health Risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173-206. Tiggeman, M. , & Kuring, J. (2004). The Role of Objectification in Disordered Eating and Depressed Mood. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 299-311. www. genderads. com Media Portrayal of Women: Female Stereotypes in the Media  http://medialiteracy. suite101. com/article. cfm/media_portrayal_of_women#ixzz0iE6NTp52

Family sociology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Family sociology - Essay Example Sociological theories and concepts help in providing a concrete base for this understanding of the role of family life in society. Moreover, analyzing different aspects of family life using different perspectives of sociological themes and concepts help in better understanding of the concept of family ideology and its structural changes in the current society. Even though contemporary society has seen many social changes in the aspect of family ideologies and its contributions to the society, it still occupies a central role in the lives of individuals. Thus, studying the role of family from the sociological perspective can provide an insight about how a family functions within a society, and helps influencing the lives of the individuals in promoting socialization, economic contribution and cooperation. According to Anthony Giddins (2006), family is defined as a group of persons who are linked directly through blood relationships or marriage, with the adult members assuming responsibility for children and family care. By this definition, family is regarded as a social institution and also the central unit of socialization, which shares values and commitments towards one another. Of all the social institutions, marriage plays a fundamental and vital role in creating a society. Marriage is bound to have preceded society; and made it possible by binding together. It is considered to be the basis of social order and improvement, along with providing the chief support of law, morality, and religion. (Booth, Crouter and Landale 2002, p.48). The extended family was a most common family structure; however, it started to decline because of many social and economic factors. Typically, in the 1940s and 1950s, a traditional family structure comprised of a man and woman along with their one or more offspring, and was widespread in the society as an

Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Annotated Bibliography Example The author, Raymond Boudon is a University Professor and he has published numerous books inclusive of article in academic Journals. Taking into consideration of the difference that values have from culture to culture and century to century, the author presents an empirical, data-based analysis of the presently existing theories about values as he explains why people tend to accept or disregard value statements. The author also classifies deeply the main theories of value that were strongly based on a belief, social, biological factors together those based on rational or utilitarian attitudes. His work has as many similarities as there are differences in comparison to Li (2013) especially regarding his approach to value statement, the origin of values and his proposed reasons as to why people tend to either accept or reject value statement Assessment: This book by Boudon Raymond is helpful in explaining the origin, value, relevance and significance of value to a particular community. This book is instrumental in the application of value theories to political issues and social issues, for instance, in cases such as communitarianism or death penalty, etc. This is a philosophical book by William James DeAngelis, which is currently two years old since its publication. The choice of this book is primarily based on its relevant and explicit explanation of a cultural perspective from the philosophical point of view of Wittgenstein who is known to have tackled the present subject matter-culture and value to some length. William James DeAngelis is an associate Professor of Philosophy and has published numerous philosophical discourses in various academic Journals and Papers. DeAngelis has research interest in various topics that include among others "Philosophy of Mind, Self-Deception, Descartes, Wittgenstein especially Wittgenstein’s

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Rhetorical Analysis - Essay Example region who tend to reside in the uptown Maryland and the Republican lawyers of the same area, who resides in the suburban parts of Virginia. If a lawyer of Maryland is asked to shift their dwelling to Virginia, they would just give an amazed look as if something strange and impossible has been proposed to them. The same thing would take place when an Interior decorator of West Hollywood is asked to move to Orange County. Similarly a barista belonging to owners from Athens named â€Å"In Georgia† would not find them fit for serving coffee to the American citizens. The same complaint can be seen everywhere. In the modern era of information and technology, the late author James Chapin noted a remarkable similarity between the different places and the inhabitants and in this context he said â€Å"every place becomes more like itself†. In the earlier days people used to consider those places suitable for living which includes lots of factory or other means of earnings, while now the same people look for places to reside which consists of people belonging to their culture. The author finds that the general people love segmenting themselves. According to him, the people are, â€Å"finding places where we are comfortable and where we feel we can flourish†. In this context the contrast nature of the United States has been put under limelight which often exhibits distinction between the institutions and blocks but as a whole they introduce themselves as a diverse nation. Mr. Brook states that diversity is often understood as racial unity. Many social reformers tried to incorporate this idea in their approaches towards a society without racial discrimination and it proved to be successful in the initial years. However the census data of 2000 reveals that racially integrated neighborhoods were found to rise during the 90s but due to some unknown reason the African families who were staying earlier with their

The Call Centre and Tengo Ltd Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Call Centre and Tengo Ltd - Assignment Example It is with regards to these facts that the researcher has endeavored to investigate the reasons behind such poor quality service and high employee turnover in the company’s customer contact division. The research revealed that the managers faltered on number of levels within the framework of strategic human resource management. Their authoritarian type leadership combined with the absence of adequate training and development facilities as well as reward and recognition framework has significantly deteriorated the motivation level of several employees which in turn increased the employee turnover in the customer contact center. Therefore, after exploring the ongoing situation in Tengo’s customer contact centre, the managers are recommended to follow a follow a team leadership style by emphasizing on the welfare of the employees as well as having adequate training and development programs in place. They are also advised to have proper payment and reward packages in order to boost the engagement level of the employee base by appreciating their effort through appropriate compensations. In addition the managers should also make the employees an integral part of the organizational decision making process in order to make them feel valued within the company. It is expected that the adoption of these measures are likely to remedy the employee turnover issue in the company. Managing human resource within an organization is arguably the most important responsibility that needs to be handled with utmost sincerity and care by human resource managers (Armstrong, 2012). HR managers need to have a thorough knowledge of the competency and skill sets of the employee base in order to allocate them in different functional departments as per requirement. Shuffling the workforce skillfully is an art and this activity serves as one of the fundamental determinants of organizational success (Hendry and Pettigrew,

Gene cloning (Clone human gene from cDNA libraries...) Essay

Gene cloning (Clone human gene from cDNA libraries...) - Essay Example First, cloning is the separation or isolation of genetically homogenous strain of an organism (Lassen et al., 2005). Organisms at the same genetic level are identical within a clone. In most cases, bacteria, phages and even higher plants are cloned by the isolation of a single cell from the organism of interest and allowing the isolated cell to form a colony or an entire plant. In more specific terms, cDNA cloning entails the isolation of single but self-replicating organism followed by an amplification of its cell (Kfoury, 2007). However, there are certain conditions that should be met for such a technique to be treated as cDNA cloning. That is, such an organism’s DNA must contain the target cDNA. In cases where the interest of a researcher is in any cDNA produced by a given organism, it would not matter the type of cDNA produced. That is, any cDNA would work. The key and most difficult issue in many cloning studies on CDNA is never the isolation of CDNA but the selection of the CDNA of interest among many cDNAs. A DNA library on the other hand refers to a collection of various sequences of DNA combined into one vector (Kfoury, 2007). Thus, a CDNA library has sequences that are complementary to messenger RNAs. A vector refers to an organism that is designed for experimental purposes and self-replicates. In many experiments, vectors are made from bacteriophages, plasmids, retroviruses and animal viruses (Lassen et al., 2005). Vectors must have a system by which they reproduce, which is the essence genetic science. Before delving deep into the techniques used to clone from CDNA libraries, it is importance to overview a few cloning strategies. Cloning Strategies and Methods First among the recommended cloning strategies is the necessity of acquiring a library that contains the required sequence. Second, the clones of interest should be isolated. Third, formal tests to help ensure that the correct clones of interest have been isolated need to be developed. One method of creating human genes from CDNA is referred to as the Rapid Amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) (McLaren, 2000). The known strengths of RACE are that it is inexpensive and a powerful tool for acquiring full-range CDNA, even for partially known sequences. In this technique, which begins with a mixture of mRNAs, non-specification anchors and gene-specific primers generated from the known regions of the gene, it is possible to identify substitute transcripts of a gene for partial as well as complete sequence of only one known transcript (McLaren, 2000). This technique is used to obtain a full-range sequence of a cell’s RNA transcript. In the first step of the RACE process, reverse transcription in which an unknown end section of a transcript is copied by use of a known sequence from the middle of the transcript results in a CDNA copy of the RNA transcript. The copied region is bounded by the known sequence and either the 5' or 3' end. Screening of cDNA Libraries and D NA Synthesis of CDNA Inserts The other techniques by which human genes may be obtained from CDNA are screening of CDNA libraries and DNA synthesis of CDNA inserts. Screening of cDNA libraries, by transcript-specific RT-PCR cloning is particularly appropriate in situations where a labeled CDNA probe is not available. In this technique, it is the knowledge about a CDNA’

Nuclear Power Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Nuclear Power - Essay Example The problems that plague nuclear energy revolve around the materials it uses to create energy. Uranium is highly radioactive once it has been depleted all of its impurities in which is needed to power up nuclear reactors. Inside a nuclear reactor, the radioactivity is increased to more than a thousand times as a quantity of of the uranium is changed to a mixture of different irradiated elements. Most, if not all, of these radioactive elements are very hazardous to human beings because such materials are highly unstable to certain elements in the environment that either cause unexpected and damaging combustion or radioactive exposure or poisoning. The damages that could result from all this destroys not only the environment greatly; it also destroys human lives and welfare as well. There are many different ways through which people could be exposed to radiation such as inhalation of radioactive gases or particles, some radioactive elements found in the soil or water, eating or drinking of food, water or dust that are contaminated. Some radioactive elements mimic normal chemical elements in the ecology and make blend in with the food chain, poisoning the whole ecosystem. In contemporary and even recent human history, there are two events that show such sort of damage and hazard the risks of nuclear energy can do. First, there was the Chernobyl Accident in 1986 in Pripyat, Ukraine. Then, there was the Fukushima Nuclear Reactor in North Japan at 2011. At 1986, the Chernobyl Nuclear Reactor had a catastrophic explosion that completely destroyed the power facility and caused massive amounts of radioactive materials to spread throughout Europe, especially seriously damaging life and the environment of what was then the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics or USSR. A forum by the International Atomic Energy Agency or IAEA (2005) stated that â€Å"the vast majority of about 5 million people residing in contaminated areas of Belarus,

The Return of the Soldier Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Return of the Soldier - Essay Example This era is often described as the final era of the old world; for, it still held major class distinctions between the rich and poor. It was also known as an era of great elegance and luxury for the rich who lived on their large estates, and great suffering and hard work for the lower classes. The beginning of the war saw families of the soldiers desperately trying to uphold the Edwardian ways in an ever changing world. It is against this backdrop that West's novel is set. The novel deals with Chris Baldry, an army captain, who suffers shell-shock; thus, causing him to forget all that had happened over the last fifteen years. He believes that he is still twenty one and in love with Margaret, a lowly born innkeeper's daughter. West uses a first person narrator, Chris' cousin Jenny, to tell the story of Chris' illness and his recovery. The journey that Chris takes in regaining his memory displays the bridge between the old social order before the war and the new emerging social order. Therefore, by looking at Chris and how the women in his life help restore his memory, it may be possible to better understand how the war changed the social order of England. In chapter one we are introduced to the three women who have been central to Chris during his life. The first half of the chapter sees Jenny, Chris' cousin and Kitty his wife in the nursery of Chris and Kitty's dead child, Oliver. Jenny reveals to the reader how she and Kitty had especially crafted Baldry Court and the surrounding grounds of Harrowweald so that Chris may live a contented life surrounded by luxurious perfection. She also accounts the day that Chris left for the war, describing how he took leave of the house. When Jenny threats that they haven't heard from Chris for a fortnight we are given our first insights into Kitty. She tells Jenny "not to fuss". Kitty is described as beautifully perfect; she is continually busy with her physical appearance. We get the idea that she is so unworried about something happening to Chris because she is perfect and she maintains a perfect household and grounds. This first half of the chapter depicts the Edwardian way of elegance and lu xury. Jenny's narration is also extremely descriptive mainly focusing on the material, placing great emphasis on it. The second half of the chapter sees Margaret's arrival to Baldry Court in order to bring the news of Chris' illness to Jenny and Kitty. A great contrast is created between Kitty's lovely appearance and Margaret's weather worn appearance that shows a life of hardship. Many unpleasant words such as "repulsive", "unlovely", "base" etc. are used to describe her. Due to the extreme divide between the rich and poor, Jenny at first mistakes her nervous way of telling them about Chris' condition as stupidity "this woman butted like a clumsy animal at a gate she was not intelligent enough to open "; yet, later realises it is because she does not want to hurt Kitty by confessing that Chris does not remember her at all, he can only remember his love for Margaret. Kitty further demonstrates how materialistic and aloof from true feeling she is when she disbelieves Margaret's story being more worried that Margaret is spinning a story to receive money. When Margaret leaves Kitty continues to ask Je nny if the story can be true; for, if it is it will be a blemish on her perfect life. She

Discrimination in the workforce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Discrimination in the workforce - Essay Example 35). In education, dissemination affects not only the staff, but also teacher-student relations and interaction. Dissemination can take the form of iintentionally harmful actions or prescribed action which limit equal opportunities or humiliate an employee. Also, Elkins (1963) and Sowell (1971) suppose that discrimination was influenced by the period of slavery and racial inequalities (Taylor 1998). Barbara Bergmann (1974) argues that dissemination is a result of the market structure which consists of skilled and non-skilled workforce. Unskilled and low-paid workforce is usually presented by black and minority employees (Taylor 1998). Discrimination and an increase in out-migration of whites from neighborhoods as larger numbers of blacks arrive are the major explanations for black-white segregation. Prejudices and discrimination is due to misunderstandings about the significance of a biological sense of "race" and racist ideas transmitted across generations and based on 'lower biolog ical quality' of African populations. The main cause of segregation and racism is the cultural superiority of "whites" based on their cultural heritage and absence of 'white' slavery. Most Africa-Americans are seen as "lower" class people in contras to "elite" class of whites (Harvey and Allard 2004). Discrimination in the workplace has deep roots. Dissemination by race was eliminated in 1863 by 13th Amendment which made slavery illegal. In 1868, 14th Amendment announced equal protection of all citizens in all states. During the first half of the XX century, black people and racial minorities experienced discriminated in wages and work conditions; they were deprived a chance to receive good education and compete with white majority (Harvey and Allard 2004). Till the middle of the XX century, women occupied clerical jobs and were not promoted to administrative positions. Actions against discrimination go back to 1941 when F. Roosevelt "encouraged minority employment by ordering defence contractors to cease discriminatory hiring" (Yates, n.d.). Further, the policy of anti-discrimination was developed by Lyndon Johnson in 1965 when he "put teeth into minority hiring rules for government contractors' (Yates, n.d.). The next amendments took place under the presidency of J. Kennedy who introduced Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) "establishing to investigate contractors' practices, impose sanctions, collect employment statistics, and ensure compliance with government regulations" (Yates, n.d.). Pre-war period (immigration act was introduced in 1924) was marked by racial prejudices and stereotyping against Asian Americans. The main areas of discrimination were family, religion, criminal justice, education and job opportunities. WWII - 1965 marked a new stage in workforce relations. During this period of time, many low class people entered educational established and found high paid jobs. In response to the growing demand for equal rights, Congress enacted major pieces of modern civil rights legislation during the 1960s that have taken the country an enormous step closer to realizing the promises of the first Reconstruction. These modern statutes, protect racial minorities against most forms of public and private discrimination in employment,

Cessna Headquarters, Wichita, Kansas Essay Example for Free

Cessna Headquarters, Wichita, Kansas Essay The words â€Å"Cessna Skyhawk† have special meaning for anyone who has ever wanted to learn to fly. At 27 feet long and 8 feet tall, with a 36-foot wingspan, a 140 mph cruising speed, and room for two adults and their luggage, more people have learned to fly with a Cessna Skyhawk than with any other plane in aviation history. In fact, the Cessna Skyhawk is the best-selling plane of all time. Clyde Cessna built his first plane in 1911, and Cessna became a storied name in aviation. Cessna built 750 gliders for the army in World War II, introduced the Skyhawk in 1956, produced the first turbo-charged and cabin-pressurized single-engine planes in the 1960s, delivered its first business jet in the 1970s, topped $1 billion in sales in the 1980s, and then, in one of the worst downturns in the history of aviation business, nearly went out of business over the next decade and a half. Sales of general aviation aircraft, which had topped out at 17,000 planes per year, dropped to 12,000 planes within a year, and over the next decade finally hit rock bottom at 928 planes for the entire industry. During the same time, Cessnas sales of piston-engine planes, like the Skyhawk, dropped from 8,000 per year to just 600. Cessna was forced to lay off 75 percent of the employees at its piston-engine plane factories (Cessna also makes business jets and larger planes) and eventually stopped making piston-engine planes altogether. However, after the economy improved and the U.S. government approved the General Aviation Revitalization Act (barring product liability lawsuits on any plane over 18 years old), Cessna decided to start building its legendary Skyhawks again.

Dystonia in the Joint Hypermobility Syndrome

Dystonia in the Joint Hypermobility Syndrome Ehlers-Danlos syndrome first described by Tschernogobow (1896) in Moscow and Ehlers (1900) in Copenhagen is a mostly autosomal inherited genetic disease of collagen synthesis that sensitizes the ensemble of the connective tissue which becomes less resistant and less elastic. These two characteristics explain the symptomatology: fragility of the skin, of the vessels (haemorrhages) and the presence of a diffuse proprioceptive syndrome due to dysfunction of the receptors which are implanted into little or non-reactive connective tissue. Diagnosis of the hypermobile type of EDS is solely clinical as there is to date no genetic maker for the most frequent form of EDS. The rarity of the disease needs to be put into question before the crowd of patients at consultations. Our experience is based on an active database of 2212 patients which all fall under the Villefranche criteria. A great number of signs and symptoms have yet to be attributed to this syndrome. They are, combined with the una wareness of physicians about the syndrome, at the origin of therapeutic errors accompanied by the iatrogenic effects of prejudice towards these patients. This is the case of dystonia which is present in 75% of our cases. Dystonia plays an important part in the functional discomfort which is at the origin of a number of handicap situations. It seems to be related to dysautonomia common amongst the patients, proprioceptive problems and the multiple pains caused by the syndrome. Dystonia treatment with Amantadine and L-Dopa permits to obtain results which go further than the normally associated extra-pyramidal treatment and opens new perspectives on the management of a syndrome that has been particularly difficult to treat. Key-Words : Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS), dystonia, dysautonomia, L-dopa, pains, fatigue. Dystonia in the joint hypermobility syndrome (a.k.a. Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, hypermobility type). Introduction Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS) recognition went through many vicissitudes since the first outstanding description by Tschernogobow (1) and Ehlers (2) respectively in Moscow in 1896 and in Copenhagen in 1900. EDS genetic grounds have been recognized since 1949 (4) collagens role as early as 1956 (5). EDS was studied in parallel by the rheumatologists (Brighton and Grahame) and the geneticist (Beighton) who are each working mainly on articular hypermobility with different assessment tests. There is perfect similarity between the rheumatologists joint hypermobility syndrome and the geneticists EDS hypermobility type. These two denominations refer in fact to the same illness. However, a great body of clinical manifestations has not yet been assigned to this syndrome. They are, in combination with the physicians usual unawareness of this syndrome, the cause of many diagnostic wavering with their iatrogenic side-effects that harm the patients. This is the case with dystonia. MATERIAL AND METHODS 2,212 patients were diagnosed and followed up in the Ehlers-Danlos consultation in Paris, between 2006 and 2015. They were all examined by the same physician with the same evaluation grid both qualitative and quantitative allowing to rate from 0 to 4 the symptoms subjective severity and objective data from clinical examination. The populations age varies from 2years to 69 years (mean age: 32). 80% are women. Inclusion criteria All the patients in this study met the criteria of the geneticians Villefranche classification (6). On top of the criteria within this classification, we observed a group of 153 patients examined in 2013 with a quotation of severity equal or superior to 2/4 (medium intensity) with clinical manifestations of the following: multiple pains (95%), fatigue (93%), proprioceptive problems (92%), hemorrhages (93%), GERD (72%), bucco-dental manifestations (72%), hyperacousia (75%), diplopia (74%), SOB (76%), dysautonomia: heavy sweating (70%), cold intolerance (74%), a pseudo Raynaud with cold extremities (84%), cognitive problems : attention (79%) and memory (72%). As of date there is no genetic test available for the hypermobile form of EDS. Finding other cases amongst the patient’s family (95%) is a strong diagnostic argument. Dystonia identification Dystonia was diagnosed if a patient suffered from one or several of the following symptoms: Involuntary muscular contractions without movement such as fasciculation on the face, blepharospasm mainly, on the thigh, reminding of a mobile phone vibration in a trouser pocket, Sudden movements such as a fit of the wrist, the shoulders, the legs or wide movements which results in hitting objects or people or throwing off balance the patient for whom they occur in the lower limbs Trembling, jerking, hesitant hand movements Trembling fingers or thumbs in motion or at rest Muscular contractions often described as hardening of muscles, rigidity, constraining movement, or as cramps Lasting contractions in forced flexion of the thumb or fingers, in flexion and adduction of the feet, Writer’s cramp when writing after variable amounts of time, Incessant, repetitive movement in flexion or extension of the foot and knee when sitting with feet on the ground, Repetitive movement of the trunk alternating between flexion and extension at the hip Diffuse tonic crises at the lower limbs with alternating, violent movements worsened by tenting to immobilize them Short contractions of the lower limbs leading to a fall Partial or generalized tonic-clonic movements and the possibility of hematomas facilitated by the fine skin and the fragility of the vessels. These can be confused with seizure activity but the EEG remains normal Restless leg syndrome at night, which sometimes evolves into very violent jerks Bruxism, which we often encounter in EDS patients could be related to dystonia These dystonic contractions provoke luxations of the shoulder, fingers, a hip, knee or the maxilla. They are most commonly of short duration but can prolong over several days, weeks, months or exceptionally years as we have observed in a few cases. Dystonia is associated with the accentuation of other manifestations of the syndrome. Pain often increases to a very intense level in the part of the body where the dystonia occurs. Dysautonomic problems (vasomotor, sweating, tachycardia, orthostatic hypotension, freezing and cold intolerance, nausea, sensations of generally feeling unwell, POTS) at which Jaime Bravo (7) attaches fatigue. Pain itself can also provoke dystonia sometimes due to subcutaneous or intramuscular injections, traumatism, or simply during physical exam manoeuvre. It is perceived as painful by these hyperalgesic patients. Dystonia exists in 75% of our patients with the following severity index : 2/4 (39%), 3/4 (29%) and 4/4 (7%). The treatment of dystonia within EDS Our therapeutic approach of EDS (8) centres on the amelioration of the proprioceptive troubles, of the pain as well as the fatigue. Foremost we use proprioceptive shoe inlays and particularly proprioceptive clothing specifically adapted for EDS, derived from the treatment of burn victims and oxygen therapy against fatigue, shortness of breath and migraines. For the last five years we have successfully used Amantadine after the discussion with Pierre Cesaro (neurologist, specialist in the treatment of Parkinson). (9) When it was taken of the market in France we sought to replace it with L-Dopa which we prescribe at a low dosage (62,5 mg q3d –Modopar: 50mg L-Dopa +12,5mg Benserazide hydrochloride) adjusted to the needs of the patient especially in severe cases. We describe here the case of a 54 year old woman, a family medicine physician, who had been diagnosed with EDS-HT. Signs present since childhood worsened at the age of 52: muscular pain, intense fatigue, proprioceptive problems manifesting most importantly with difficulties waling. Signs of dystonia could be observed in the lower limbs. She is very tired with crises of somnolence that disturb her professional life. The fatigue and muscular pain is partially alleviated by wearing proprioceptive shoe inlays, 3 sessions of oxygen therapy (3L/min) 20min/day, baclofen and L-Carnitine. The effects alleviate progressively over the course of 2 months a generalised sensation of muscular rigidity of the legs and face with difficulties in the articulations, muscular twitches increasing in frequency. She started progressively on a treatment with Modopar (62,5mg q3d). The results were spectacular; after 2 weeks she recuperated fluid motion in her legs, the involuntary muscular contractions disappeared, but there was also improvement in her vigilance and in the fatigue. She stopped the Baclofen without forfeiting anything in her muscular state. After 4 months of the treatment with L-Dopa the effects on her vigilance are maintained with the total loss of the hypersomnia. She can cut down her intake of Tramadol extended release threefold. Whereas before she thought about stopping all of her professional activities, she is now able to pursuit her professional life with efficacy. The oxygen therapy is maintained as well as the L-Carnitine for their action on muscles, because c utting down this part of the treatment lead to an increase in muscular pain. Discussion 1 Identifying dystonia as a frequent and evocative manifestation of EDS Dystonia should be looked for in any patient diagnosed with EDS. It even contributes to its diagnosis. On the other hand, when dystonia is present in a patient often associated with psychiatric problems one should think of the possibility of EDS as a diagnosis and inquire about the other evocative signs: diffuse overall pain, fatigue, hypermobility, cutaneous fragility, joint problems, hemorrhages and familial cases. 2 Reflections on the pathophysiology We estimate that the alteration in proprioception plays a large part in the clinical manifestation of EDS. The receptors placed in a more elastic tissue, diminished in its thickness, easily deformed and compressed, having lost their elasticity (with a loss or attenuation of the elastic recoil),which do not or not well (not enough or too much) to solicitations. This is particularly true for the skin, which is the most important organ for the postural proprioception and for movement. This is also very true for the control of muscular activity via neuromuscular connections. This receptor dysfunction is also a plausible explanation for the anarchy within the autonomic nervous system, especially the crises of tachycardia and hypotension due to a loss in reactivity of the carotid sinus receptors implanted in altered collagen. This explanation can be expanded towards the mechanism causing dyspnea at effort, as the mechanoreceptors of the joints do not transmit the proper signals to the resp iratory centers. One of the arguments in favor of this explanation is the positive effect special compressive clothing has on the proprioceptive control of the limbs (less falls, fewer luxation of the shoulder and fingers) and the improvement of the respiratory difficulties when wearing these clothes on the trunk. It is logical to interpret dystonia by way of the same mechanism and the poor information which is received by the specialized area of central nervous system. The positive effect observed by Roland Jaussaud (10) on a patient presenting with permanent, multiple, involuntary movements which completely ceased after starting to wear the special EDS compressive clothing. An association between dystonia and dysautonomia has often been made (11). This corresponds to our observations made in consultation, especially in the instances that our patients came to call â€Å"their EDS crises†. These crises are often accompanied by postural orthostatic hypotension (POTS) which pla ys an important role in the sensation of fatigue. (7,12). They are habitually painful, even very painful. These observations suggest an intricate pathophysiological relationship between dystonia, dysautonomia and pain in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome which become the main therapeutic focus. 3 How to treat dystonia in EDS? The treatment of the proprioceptive problems (clothes and inlays), of the pain (inlays, local treatments to be preferred over the general route), of the fatigue (mostly oxygen therapy) and of the autonomic dysfunction by way of beta-blockers at low dose (13) seems to be a necessary prerequisite to be adjusted towards each patient individually. The specific treatment with anti-Parkinson medications have mostly been followed by their effects included on their effects in grand dystonic crises. The observation of positive effects outside of dystonia bears two questions: Firstly the role of dystonia itself on fatigue by way of less muscular activity and a better automatic control of movement, but also the role of dopamine as a molecule itself in this systemic disease. Conclusions Manifestations of dystonia in EDS is an important adjunct to further diagnosis and treatment, the understanding of its pathophysiology of this complex disease, which is little or poorly diagnosed, altering considerably life quality of the patients suffering from it and a source of many disabling situations. The integration of all the manifestations of dystonia into the symptomatology of EDS enriches the clinic of this syndrome and furthers/advances new therapeutic perspectives in a particularly hard to treat pathology. L-Dopa seems to have positive effects that transcend those researched on dystonia itself.

Applying The Anova Test Education Essay

Applying The Anova Test Education Essay Chapter 6 ANOVA When you want to compare means of more than two groups or levels of an independent variable, one way ANOVA can be used. Anova is used for finding significant relations. Anova is used to find significant relation between various variables. The procedure of ANOVA involves the derivation of two different estimates of population variance from the data. Then statistic is calculated from the ratio of these two estimates. One of these estimates (between group variance) is the measure of the effect of independent variable combined with error variance. The other estimate (within group variance) is of error variance itself. The F-ratio is the ratio of between groups and within groups variance. In case, the null hypothesis is rejected, i.e., when significant different lies, post adhoc analysis or other tests need to be performed to see the results. The Anova test is a parametric test which assumes: Population normality data is numerical data representing samples from normally distributed populations Homogeneity of variance the variances of the groups are similar the sizes of the groups are similar the groups should be independent ANOVA tests the null hypothesis that the means of all the groups being compared are equal, and produces a statistic called F. If the means of all the groups tested by ANOVA are equal, fine. But if the result tells us to reject the null hypothesis, we perform Brown-Forsythe and Welch test options in SPSS. Assumption of Anova: Homogeneity of Variance. As such homogeneity of variance tests are performed. If this assumption is broken then Brown-Forsythe test option and Welch test option display alternate versions of F-statistic. Homogeneity of Variance: If significance value is less than 0.05, variances of groups are significantly different. Brown-Forsythe and Welch test option: If significance value is less than 0.05, reject null hypothesis. Anova: If significance value is less than 0.05, reject null hypothesis. Post Hoc analysis involves hunting through data for some significance. This testing carries risks of type I errors. Post hoc tests are designed to protect against type I errors, given that all the possible comparisons are going to be made. These tests are stricter than planned comparisons and it is difficult to obtain significance. There are many post hoc tests. More the options, stricter will be the determination of significance. Some post hoc tests are: Scheffe test- allows every possible comparison to be made but is tough on rejecting the null hypothesis. Tukey test / honestly significant difference (HSD) test- lenient but the types of comparison that can be made are restricted. This chapter will show Tukey test also. One way ANOVA Working Example 1 : One-way between groups ANOVA with post-hoc comparisons Vijender Gupta wants to compare the scores of CBSE students from four metro cities of India i.e. Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai. He obtained 20 participant scores based on random sampling from each of the four metro cities, collecting 100 responses. Also note that, this is independent design, since the respondents are from different cities. He made following hypothesis: Null Hypothesis : There is no significant difference in scores from different metro cities of India Alternate Hypothesis : There is significant difference in scores from different metro cities of India Make the variable view of data table as shown in the figure below. Enter the values of city as 1-Delhi, 2-Kolkata, 3-Mumbai, 4-Chennai. Fill the data view with following data. City Score 1 400.00 1 450.00 1 499.00 1 480.00 1 495.00 1 300.00 1 350.00 1 356.00 1 269.00 1 298.00 1 299.00 1 599.00 1 466.00 1 591.00 1 502.00 1 598.00 1 548.00 1 459.00 1 489.00 1 499.00 2 389.00 2 398.00 2 399.00 2 599.00 2 598.00 2 457.00 2 498.00 2 400.00 2 300.00 2 369.00 2 368.00 2 348.00 2 499.00 2 475.00 2 489.00 2 498.00 2 399.00 2 398.00 2 378.00 2 498.00 3 488.00 3 469.00 3 425.00 3 450.00 3 399.00 3 385.00 3 358.00 3 299.00 3 298.00 3 389.00 3 398.00 3 349.00 3 358.00 3 498.00 3 452.00 3 411.00 3 398.00 3 379.00 3 295.00 3 250.00 4 450.00 4 400.00 4 450.00 4 428.00 4 398.00 4 359.00 4 360.00 4 302.00 4 310.00 4 295.00 4 259.00 4 301.00 4 322.00 4 365.00 4 389.00 4 378.00 4 345.00 4 498.00 4 489.00 4 456.00 Click on Analyze menuÆ’Â  Compare MeansÆ’Â  One-Way ANOVAà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.One-Way ANOVA dialogue box will be opened. Select Student Score(dependent variable) in Dependent List box and City(independent variable) in the Factor as shown in the figure below. Click Contrastsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ push button. Contrasts sub dialogue box will be opened. See that all the settings remain as shown in the figure below. Click Continue to close this sub dialogue box and come back to One-Way ANOVA dialogue box. Click Post Hocà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ push button. Post Hoc sub dialogue box will be opened. See that all the settings remain as shown in the figure below. Click Tukey test and Click Continue to close this sub dialogue box and come back to One-Way ANOVA dialogue box. Also note that significant level in this sub dialogue box is 0.05, which can be changed according to the need. Click Optionsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ push button. Options sub dialogue box will be opened. Select the Descriptive and Homogenity of variance test check box and see that all the settings remain as shown in the figure below. Click Continue to close this sub dialogue box and come back to One-Way ANOVA dialogue box. Click OK to see the output viewer. The Output: ONEWAY Score BY City /STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES HOMOGENEITY /MISSING ANALYSIS /POSTHOC=TUKEY ALPHA(0.05). Descriptives Student Score N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Minimum Maximum Lower Bound Upper Bound Delhi 20 447.3500 104.69016 23.40943 398.3535 496.3465 269.00 599.00 Kolkata 20 437.8500 79.75771 17.83437 400.5222 475.1778 300.00 599.00 Mumbai 20 387.4000 67.25396 15.03844 355.9242 418.8758 250.00 498.00 Chennai 20 377.7000 68.49287 15.31547 345.6443 409.7557 259.00 498.00 Total 80 412.5750 85.54676 9.56442 393.5375 431.6125 250.00 599.00 Test of Homogeneity of Variances Student Score Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig. 2.371 3 76 .077 Since, homogeneity of variance should not be there for conducting Anova tests, which is one of the assumptions of Anova, we see that Levenes test shows that homogeneity of variance is not significant (p>0.05). As such, you can be confident that population variances for each group are approximately equal. We can see the Anova results ahead. ANOVA Student Score Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 73963.450 3 24654.483 3.716 .015 Within Groups 504178.100 76 6633.922 Total 578141.550 79 Table above shows the F test values along with degrees of freedom (2,76) and significance of 0.15. Given that p Multiple Comparisons Student Score Tukey HSD (I) Metro City (J) Metro City Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound Delhi Kolkata 9.50000 25.75640 .983 -58.1568 77.1568 Mumbai 59.95000 25.75640 .101 -7.7068 127.6068 Chennai 69.65000* 25.75640 .041 1.9932 137.3068 Kolkata Delhi -9.50000 25.75640 .983 -77.1568 58.1568 Mumbai 50.45000 25.75640 .213 -17.2068 118.1068 Chennai 60.15000 25.75640 .099 -7.5068 127.8068 Mumbai Delhi -59.95000 25.75640 .101 -127.6068 7.7068 Kolkata -50.45000 25.75640 .213 -118.1068 17.2068 Chennai 9.70000 25.75640 .982 -57.9568 77.3568 Chennai Delhi -69.65000* 25.75640 .041 -137.3068 -1.9932 Kolkata -60.15000 25.75640 .099 -127.8068 7.5068 Mumbai -9.70000 25.75640 .982 -77.3568 57.9568 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. Using Tukey HSD further, we can conclude that Delhi and Chennai have significant difference in their scores. This can be concluded from figure above and figure below. Student Score Tukey HSDa Metro City N Subset for alpha = 0.05 1 2 Chennai 20 377.7000 Mumbai 20 387.4000 387.4000 Kolkata 20 437.8500 437.8500 Delhi 20 447.3500 Sig. .099 .101 Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are displayed. a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 20.000. Working Example 2 : One-way between groups ANOVA with Brown-Forsythe and Weltch tests Aditya wants to see that there exists a significant difference between collecting information (internet use) and internet benefits. He collects data from 29 respondents and finds the solution through one way Anova. Note: The respondents count in the working example is kept small for showing all the 29 responses in data view window in figure ahead. Null Hypothesis : There is no significant difference in collecting information and internet benefits. Alternate Hypothesis : There is significant difference in collecting information and internet benefits. Internet Use Collecting Information(Info) [see figure below] Internet Benefits Availability of updated information(Use1) Easy movement across websites(Use2) Prompt online ordering(Use3) Prompt query handling(Use4) Get lowest price for product/service purchase(Compar1) Easy comparison of product/service from several vendors(Compar2) Easy comparison of price from several vendors(Compar3) Able to obtain competitive and educational information regarding product/ service(Compar4) Reduced order processing time(RedPTM1) Reduced paper flow(RedPTM2) Reduced ordering costs(RedPTM3) Info (Collecting Information) : 1(Never), 2(Occasionally), 3(Considerably), 4(Almost Always), 5(Always) Internet Benefits : 1(Not important), 2(Less important), 3(Important), 4(Very Important), 5(Extremely Important) Enter the variable view of variables as shown in the figure below. Enter the data in the data view as shown in the figure below. Click AnalyzeÆ’Â  Compare MeansÆ’Â  One-Way ANOVAà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. The One-Way ANOVA dialogue box will be opened. Insert all the internet benefits variables in dependent list and internet use variable in the factor as shown in the figure below. Click Post Hocà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ push button to open its sub dialogue box. See that significance level is set as per need. In this case, we have used 0.05 significance level. Click Continue to close the sub dialogue box. Click Optionsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ push button in the One-Way ANOVA dialogue box. Select the Descriptive, Homogeneity of variance test, Brown-Forsythe and Welch check boxes and click continue to close this sub dialogue box. Click OK to see the output viewer. The OUTPUT ONEWAY Use1 Use2 Use3 Use4 Compar1 Compar2 Compar3 Compar4 RedPTM1 RedPTM2 RedPTM3 BY InfoG2 /STATISTICS HOMOGENEITY BROWNFORSYTHE WELCH /MISSING ANALYSIS. Test of Homogeneity of Variances Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig. Availability of Updated information 1.117 3 25 .361 Easy Movement across around websites .475 3 25 .703 Prompt online ordering .914 3 25 .448 Prompt Query handling 2.379 3 25 .094 Get lowest price for product / service purchase 1.327 3 25 .288 Easy comparison of product / service from several vendors .755 3 25 .530 Easy comparison of price from several vendors 3.677 3 25 .025 Able to obtain competitive and educational information regarding product / service 1.939 3 25 .149 Reduced order processing time .326 3 25 .806 Reduced Paper Flow 1.478 3 25 .245 Reduced Ordering Costs 2.976 3 25 .051 Table above shows that Easy comparison of price from several vendors has significantly different variances according to levene statistic and showing significant level of only 0.025 (which is below 0.05 for 5% level of significance) as such anova result may not be valid for this variable. Therefore, Brown-Forsythe and Welch tests are performed for analyzing this particular variable. ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Availability of Updated information Between Groups .702 3 .234 1.775 .178 Within Groups 3.298 25 .132 Total 4.000 28 Easy Movement across around websites Between Groups 2.630 3 .877 1.817 .170 Within Groups 12.060 25 .482 Total 14.690 28 Prompt online ordering Between Groups 1.785 3 .595 2.154 .119 Within Groups 6.905 25 .276 Total 8.690 28 Prompt Query handling Between Groups 1.742 3 .581 2.132 .121 Within Groups 6.810 25 .272 Total 8.552 28 Get lowest price for product / service purchase Between Groups .059 3 .020 .074 .974 Within Groups 6.631 25 .265 Total 6.690 28 Easy comparison of product / service from several vendors Between Groups .604 3 .201 .617 .610 Within Groups 8.155 25 .326 Total 8.759 28 Easy comparison of price from several vendors Between Groups 6.630 3 2.210 4.582 .011 Within Groups 12.060 25 .482 Total 18.690 28 Able to obtain competitive and educational information regarding product / service Between Groups 1.302 3 .434 2.212 .112 Within Groups 4.905 25 .196 Total 6.207 28 Reduced order processing time Between Groups .273 3 .091 .259 .854 Within Groups 8.762 25 .350 Total 9.034 28 Reduced Paper Flow Between Groups .140 3 .047 .110 .954 Within Groups 10.619 25 .425 Total 10.759 28 Reduced Ordering Costs Between Groups .647 3 .216 .453 .718 Within Groups 11.905 25 .476 Total 12.552 28 Table above shows the F test values along with significance in case of collecting information (Internet use). Comparing the F test values and significance values, we see that all the anova comparisons favour the acceptance of null hypothesis. Please note that significance values are greater than 0.05 in all the variables except easy comparison of price from several vendors, according to homogeneity rule, this variable will not be judged by Anova F statistic. For this variable, we have performed Welch and Brown-Forsythe tests. Robust Tests of Equality of Meansb,c,d Statistica df1 df2 Sig. Availability of Updated information Welch 1.123 3 7.172 .401 Brown-Forsythe 1.244 3 6.530 .368 Easy Movement across around websites Welch 1.659 3 8.402 .249 Brown-Forsythe 2.051 3 17.509 .144 Prompt online ordering Welch 1.633 3 7.896 .258 Brown-Forsythe 2.178 3 11.593 .145 Prompt Query handling Welch . . . . Brown-Forsythe . . . . Get lowest price for product / service purchase Welch . . . . Brown-Forsythe . . . . Easy comparison of product / service from several vendors Welch .560 3 8.014 .656 Brown-Forsythe .682 3 12.935 .579 Easy comparison of price from several vendors Welch . . . . Brown-Forsythe . . . . Able to obtain competitive and educational information regarding product / service Welch 1.472 3 7.457 .298 Brown-Forsythe 1.827 3 9.211 .211 Reduced order processing time Welch .219 3 8.155 .881 Brown-Forsythe .278 3 14.596 .840 Reduced Paper Flow Welch .119 3 8.021 .946 Brown-Forsythe .122 3 15.144 .946 Reduced Ordering Costs Welch .735 3 8.066 .560 Brown-Forsythe .525 3 16.006 .671 a. Asymptotically F distributed. b. Robust tests of equality of means cannot be performed for Prompt Query handling because at least one group has 0 variance. c. Robust tests of equality of means cannot be performed for Get lowest price for product / service purchase because at least one group has 0 variance. d. Robust tests of equality of means cannot be performed for Easy comparision of price from several vendors because at least one group has 0 variance. Table above shows the Welch and Brown-Forsythe tests performed on the internet benefits and particularly help in analyzing easy comparison of product / service from several vendors. The significance values are much higher then required 0.05. The Statistics and significance values indicate the acceptance of null hypothesis. The analysis and conclusion from output: Homogeneity of Variance test Anova test Brown-Forsythe test Welch test Accept Null Hypothesis Use1 Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Use2 Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Use3 Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Use4 Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Compar1 Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Compar2 x x Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Compar3 Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Compar4 Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ RedPTM1 Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ RedPTM2 Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ RedPTM3 Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ Æ’Â ¼ All the results verify the Null Hypothesis acceptance. Hence, we accept null hypothesis, i.e., There is no significant difference in collecting information and internet benefits. Working Example 3 : One-way between groups ANOVA with planned comparisons Ritu Gupta wants to know the sales in four different metro cities of India in Diwali season. She assumes the sales contrast of 2:1:-1:-2 for Delhi:Kolkata:Mumbai:Chennai, respectively. She collects sales data from 10 respondents each from the four metro cities, collecting a total of 40 sales data. Open new data file and make variables as shown in the figure below. The values column in the city row consists of following values: 1 Delhi 2 Kolkata 3 Mumbai 4 Chennai Enter the sales data of 40 respondents as shown below: City Sales (Rs. Lacs) 1 500.00 1 498.00 1 478.00 1 499.00 1 450.00 1 428.00 1 500.00 1 498.00 1 486.00 1 469.00 2 500.00 2 428.00 2 439.00 2 389.00 2 379.00 2 498.00 2 469.00 2 428.00 2 412.00 2 410.00 3 421.00 3 410.00 3 389.00 3 359.00 3 369.00 3 359.00 3 349.00 3 349.00 3 359.00 3 400.00 4 289.00 4 269.00 4 259.00 4 299.00 4 389.00 4 349.00 4 350.00 4 301.00 4 297.00 4 279.00 Click AnalyzeÆ’Â  Compare MeansÆ’Â  One-Way ANOVAà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. This will open One-Way ANOVA dialogue box. Shift the Sales variable to Dependent List and City variable to Factor column. Click Contrastsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ push button to open its sub dialogue box. Enter the coefficients as shown in the figure below. Notice that the coefficient total should be zero. Click continue to close the sub dialogue box and come back to previous dialogue box. Click Post Hocà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ push button to check the significance level in the Post Hoc sub dialogue box. In this case it is 0.05. Click continue to close this sub dialogue box. Click Optionsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ push button to open its sub dialogue box. Select descriptive and homogeneity of variance test and click continue to close this sub dialogue box. This will open previous dialogue box. Click OK to see the output viewer. The Output: ONEWAY Sales BY City /CONTRAST=2 1 -1 -2 /STATISTICS DESCRIPTIVES HOMOGENEITY /MISSING ANALYSIS. Descriptives Sales (Rs.Lacs) N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Minimum Maximum Lower Bound Upper Bound Delhi 10 480.6000 24.87837 7.86723 462.8031 498.3969 428.00 500.00 Kolkata 10 435.2000 41.99153 13.27889 405.1611 465.2389 379.00 500.00 Mumbai 10 376.4000 26.45415 8.36554 357.4758 395.3242 349.00 421.00 Chennai 10 308.1000 41.33992 13.07283 278.5272 337.6728 259.00 389.00 Total 40 400.0750 73.46703 11.61616 376.5791 423.5709 259.00 500.00 Test of Homogeneity of Variances Sales (Rs.Lacs) Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig. 1.377 3 36 .265 The Levene test statistic shows that p>.05. As such, assumption of ANOVA for homogeneity of variance has not been violated. ANOVA Sales (Rs.Lacs) Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 167379.475 3 55793.158 46.581 .000 Within Groups 43119.300 36 1197.758 Total 210498.775 39 The Anova F-ratio and significance values suggests that season does significantly influence the sales in the cities, F(3,36) = 46.581, p The contrast coefficients, as assumed are shown in the table below. Contrast Coefficients Contrast Metro City Delhi Kolkata Mumbai Chennai 1 2 1 -1 -2 Contrast Tests Contrast Value of Contrast Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Sales (Rs.Lacs) Assume equal variances 1 403.8000 34.60865 11.668 36 .000 Does not assume equal variances 1 403.8000 34.31443 11.768 22.101 .000 Since, the assumptions of homogeneity of variance were not violated, you can discuss with assume equal variances row of upper table. The t value of 36 is highly significant (p The descriptive table shows that during Diwali season, Delhi has maximum sales and Chennai has least sales according to the respondents. To obtain F value, the above T value will be squared, i.e. F=T2 = 11.668*11.668=136.142224. Also note that, df1 for planned comparison is always 1, i.e. df1=1 and df2 will be shown in the within groups estimate of ANOVA table above, i.e., df2=36. As such we can write the result as F(1,36)=136.142224, p Two way ANOVA Two way ANOVA is similar to one way ANOVA in all the aspects except that in this case additional independent variable is introduced. Each independent variable includes two or more variants. Working Example 4 : Two way between groups ANOVA Neha gupta wants to research that whether sales (dependent) of the respondents depend on their place(independent) and education (independent). She assigns 9 respondents from each metro city. Each respondent can select three education levels. Place: 1(Delhi), 2(Kolkata), 3(Chennai) Education: 1(Under graduate), 2(Graduate), 3(Post Graduate) A total of 3x3x9 = 81 responses were collected. She wants to know whether : The location influences sales? The education influences the sales? The influence of education on sales depends on location of respondent? Make the data file by creating variables as shown in the figure below. Enter the data in the data view as shown in the figure below. Click AnalyzeÆ’Â  General Linear ModelÆ’Â  Univariateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. This will open Univariate dialogue box. Choose sales and send it in dependent variable box. Similarly, choose place and education to send them in fixed factor(s) list box. Click Options push button to open its sub dialogue box. Click Descriptive Statistics, Estimates of effect size, Observed power and Homogeneity tests check boxes in the Display box and click continue. Previous dialogue box will open. Click OK to see the output. The Output : UNIANOVA Sales BY Place Education /METHOD=SSTYPE(3) /INTERCEPT=INCLUDE /PRINT=ETASQ HOMOGENEITY DESCRIPTIVE OPOWER /CRITERIA=ALPHA(.05) /DESIGN=Place Education Place*Education. Between-Subjects Factors Value Label N Place 1 Delhi 9 2 Kolkata 9 3 Chennai 9 Education 1

Wheel chair tennis :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tennis Populations 1. Wheel chair tennis 2. Hearing impaired 3. Learning disabilities   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wheelchair tennis won’t come easy to a new comer but with practice you can only get better. I would rate wheelchair tennis not a 1 or 2 (easy) because its hard to do two things at once. Positioning yourself in a wheelchair to hit a tennis ball before it bounces twice can be difficult. I would rate this activity a 3 due to having tennis skill and wheelchair handling capability. Wheelchair tennis is for every level but to have the basics of moving around the court and learn how to hit different types of shots with a tennis racquet can be challenging.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wheelchair tennis started in 1976, when Brad Parks introduced the potential of this new sport. Since 1976, wheelchair tennis has been the fastest growing and one of the most challenging and exciting of all wheelchair sports. It has provided opportunities for many disabled people to enjoy competitive tennis, as well as sharing experiences with both able-bodied and disabled friends of all age groups.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A little over a decade later since it was first introduced, with its fast growth and popularity, the IWTF (international wheelchair tennis federation) formed in 1988. The new sport grew throughout the country and even overseas. As fast as the sport grew one of the major problems was lack of equipment. Over the year, many players have donated their old wheelchairs to new and developing countries to help them start a wheelchair program. Wheelchair tennis has the same rules as a regular tennis game, except the only rule difference is the ball can bounce 2 times instead of once.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Mission statement for Wheelchair Tennis: The ITF is the international governing body for tennis, including wheelchair tennis. It aims to provide, promote and develop opportunities for men, women and children with disabilities to participate in recreational and competitive wheelchair tennis at all levels from novice to the professional player. As the governing body of tennis, the ITF provides a leading role in the administration of wheelchair tennis. The ITF aims to ensure that a fair and equal opportunity is provided for all those entitled to play under its eligibility rules and that the Rules of Wheelchair Tennis are implemented according to the standards expected of an international body. The ITF aims to work together with National Tennis Federations, National Disabled Sports Organizations and National Wheelchair Tennis Organizations to provide opportunities for all involved in wheelchair tennis and to encourage integration with able-bodied tennis whenever possible.

Essay --

The Band and Its Placement in American Music The Band has come to be known as one of the top one hundred greatest group of performers in the twentieth century. At the height of their popularity in the late 1960s, America was drawing a harsh divide between generations, races, genders, and political ideologies. Rock and Roll at this point had become a defining feature of the counterculture (the younger generations were disillusioned with the then upheld principles of American society) and as such was seen as a menace which often voiced harsh criticisms against figures and institutions of authority really long sentence. Amidst the chaos between music and society, a humbly talented group of performers released what some have called the purest most honest music of the generation. The Band had its influences rooted in the country, rock’ n’ roll, and rhythm and blues music of the early 1950s. To more than a few members of the group, performers such as Little Richard, Elvis Presley, Conway Twitty, Johnny Cash, and Jerry Lee Lewis inspired them to pursue music with the passionate zeal that usually accompanies talented musicians. The members: Robbie Robertson, Levon Helm, Rick Danko, Garth Hudson, and Richard Manuel were all multi-instrumentalists and as such got their start as musicians from early ages, Levon Helm for example started playing guitar at the age of nine. In 1958, Helm began touring with an established band known as Ronnie Hawkins and the Hawks throughout Ontario, Canada. This pre-incarnation of the Band earned fame throughout Canada before finally deciding to settle in Toronto where their most profitable gigs occurred at. Homesickness, however prevented the Hawks from remaining together for very long. As members of ... ... seems to highlight all of the genres that the group was influenced by and in turn showcases their progressive sound. Not only does the song recant a folk-tale in the form of a ballad but also shows the complexities of characters as archetypes of mankind and alludes to the biblical wanderings of the disciples. The song was also featured in the 1978 documentary of The Band, The Last Waltz, directed by Martin Scorsese. As a final hoorah, the Band concluded their touring in 1976 with a cadre of other influential artists such as Paul McCartney, Neil Young, Eric Clapton, Van Morrison and others. The film the Last Waltz has also lived on as an inspiration to current artists and has been acclaimed as a must see for musicians. The film not only captures the performances of The Band but also presents them in the context of the culture, amidst famous aspects of rock and roll.

Linguistics and Language Teaching. Essay

Introduction Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication. The scientific study of language in any of its senses is called linguistics. Linguistic theory has traditionally considered native speakers as the only reliable source of linguistic data (Chomsky 1965). It is therefore not surprising to ? nd only a limited number of works focusing on non-native speakers prior to the 1990s. The ?  rst attempt to put‘(non)nativism’ onto the centre stage of linguistic inquiry by challenging current undisputed assumptions on the matter was Paikeday’s (1985) The native speaker is dead , in which it is argued that the native speaker ‘exists only as a ? gment of linguist’s imagination’ (Paikeday 1985: 12). Paikeday suggested using the term ‘pro? cient user’ of a language to refer to all speakers who can successfully use it. A few years later, Rampton (1990) similarly proposed the term ‘expert speaker’ to include all successful users of a language. Davies (1991, 2003) further delved into ‘native speaker’ identity, and thus formulated the key question of whether a second language (L2) learner can become a native speaker of the target language. His conclusion was that L2 learners can become native speaker of the target language and master the intuition, grammar, spontaneity, creativity, pragmatic control, and interpreting quality of ‘born’ native speakers. Generally, English educated Malaysians of all ethnic and family language background speak and move alike. However, with the implementation of the national language policy of Bahasa Malaysia as the national language of Malaysia and as the language of instruction, (except in the cases of Chinese or Tamil medium primary schools), the status of English Language in Malaysia is different from the earlier years. The English language covered a continuum from first language through second language to a foreign language. Bahasa Malaysia is replacing English in most of its previous functions, but English may be expected to remain as a continuum from second language to foreign language according to the background and occupation of the speaker. In Malaysia, presently the use of English is less common than in Singapore and is likely to decrease steadily with the implementation of the national language policy. However, English still remains as a language of considerable importance and is still being used in various spheres of everyday activity. The role of English has changed from its earlier status as the precise language of the colonial era and the decades after the Second World War to a second language. At the moment, it is still considered as an international code to be used for diplomatic and commercial negotiations and as a language necessary in many fields of tertiary study and research. Not surprisingly, the non-native English language speakers among Malaysians make grammatical mistakes from time to time. These usually happened among Malaysian adult students and even among some Malaysian English teachers. 1. The transcript of a recorded conversation. The following excerpt is a recorded conversation among teachers and will be analysed of the mistakes made by some teachers during discussion. Our discussion was on the quality and effectiveness of a programme called ‘Program Penutur Jati’ or English Language Teacher Development Project (ELTP). Briefly, the aim of the project is to enhance the lower primary ESL teachers’ ability to plan and deliver quality English lessons based on the new National English Language Curriculum in 600 schools across East Malaysia. The teachers involved in discussion come from various races, ethnic groups, ages and teaching experiences. Kamel : That is my opinion. I don’t know yours. Ok. Chairperson : I agree †¦. laugh Kamel : But , as I said just now. I don’t like that the fixture.. ok. For example aaaa as my mentor come to our school .. every Monday ok.. my class start at nine o’clock†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 7. 30.. that mean one and half hour include the preparation for my lesson, so I don’t think that I have an ample time for me to prepare the things†¦ ok . Moreover, the one hour and one and half hour is the .. for all to prepare.. the whole week not only , the one day. So I don’t think that will be effective. Chairperson: Emmmm Kamel : So Chairperson : Did you tell him about it? Kamel: Aaaaaa†¦ So far not yet. Chairperson : Do you have the chance to talk about it. Kamel : Because, I don’t have any.. I don’t have the opportunity to.. Chairperson : Then, you should tell him. Kamel ; I was thinking. Why don’t the mentors like them to be .. have qualification in teaching, so that they can come to the trainee teachers training college rather than†¦ Chairperson : For your information, ahh Chairperson : Overall, it seems to be working with you†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Naga : The ideas (cough)†¦ is good and different†¦ he is friendly. Chairperson : So.. ahh. If supposing .. You have a mentor to this.. who doesn’t speak.. doesn’t speak like Morrocan. Alright Naemah : Yehhh Chairperson: Right.. Alright, if.. Chairperson: Who? Chairperson : Madam Soya? She is from where? Others : Bulgaria.. (together) Chairperson : Bulgaria? Does she have the accent? Chairperson: What do you think? Do you think†¦ | 2. Common grammatical mistakes and errors by non-native English speakers. The types of errors can be categorised into two: descriptive and surface structures. Descriptive errors include noun phrase, verb phrase and complex sentence. While surface structure errors include omission, addition, misinformation, misordering and blends. After analysing the recorded conversation, there are few mistakes or errors made by Mr. Kamel during the said discussion. a. The use of unmarked forms instead of marked forms is far more frequent, as can be seen in the examples as follows. * I don’t know yours. * I don’t know about you. * .. as I said just now. * .. as I have said just now. One possible cause of these errors is merely interlingual errors which is the result of mother tongue influences ‘Saya tak tahu awak punya’ and ‘†¦ seperti yang saya kata tadi. ’ respectively. In his article, ‘A Role for the Mother Tongue’ in ‘Language Transfer in Language Learning’, Professor Corder (1981) reinvestigated the phenomenon and questions the term ‘transfer’. He suggests that mother tongue influence as a neutral and broader term to refer to what has most commonly been called transfer. Corder says that since most studies of error were made on the basis of the performance of learners in formal situations where it appears that errors related to mother tongue are more frequent, it was natural that an explanation of the phenomenon was of considerable concern to the applied linguistic. It was out of this concern that the whole industry of contrastive studies arose. He also claims that as far as the acquisition of syntactic knowledge is concerned, no process appropriately called interference takes place, if by that we mean that the mother tongue actually inhibits, prevents, or makes more difficult the acquisition of some feature of the target language. The term ‘interference’ is now most often used to mean what is no more than the presence in the learner‘s performance in the target language of mother-tongue-like features which are incorrect according to the rules of the target language. b. Obviously. Mr. Kamel has the problem in pronouncing certain words especially in the pronunciation of the initial sound of common words like the, there, then and that. It is also the middle consonant sound in feather and the final sound of bathe. These sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. The initial sound of that and the final sound of both are both voiceless dental. This problem arises because Mr Kamel’s tongue is not merely touches the teeth. Thus, his pronunciation of these particular words are incorrect. Besides, difficulty in phonology can caused by mother tongue interference. Eltrug (1984) affirmed that mother tongue interference can contribute to a large number of pronunciation errors made by students. An English sound does exist in the native language, but not as separate phonemes. This simply means the first language speakers do not perceive it as a distinct sound that makes difference to meaning. For example The sound /? / does exist in Malay, but whether the vowel is long or short does not make any difference in meaning. For instance, the English phonemes/? / and /i:/ differ very much in meaning as in the words ‘leave’ and ‘live’, ‘sheep’ and ‘ship’. The great amount of vocabulary of English really makes the second language learner suffer in reading. There is a lot of words unknown and the most confusing point is even the second language learner know the meaning but they can’t really understand the meaning of the whole sentence. It is because an English word gives different impressions in different situations. This makes things so confusing about the meaning of the word. Grammatical interference is defined as the first language influencing the second in terms of word order, use of pronouns and determinants, tense and mood. Interference at a lexical level provides for the borrowing of words from one language and converting them to sound more natural in another and orthographic interference includes the spelling of one language altering another. In Malay grammar, it does not require one to have any form of determiner in front of instruments like computer, piano, internet. English grammar, however, requires the instruments mentioned above (computer, piano, internet) to be preceded by determiners and if neither a possessive determiner nor a demonstrative determiner is used, the use of either a definite article or an indefinite article is necessary. Thus, the ungrammatical sentences in could be the result of interference of the cultural transfer from Malay language structure on English. Erroneous form| Correct form| She plays piano while I sing. Malay: Dia bermain piano sementara saya menyanyi. | She plays the piano while I sing | She stay at home. Malay : Dia tinggal di rumah | She stays at home. | Table 1 : Examples of interference from the learners’ first language. c. Subjects also exhibited errors in subject-verb agreement as is shown in the examples as follows: * Every Monday, my class start at nine o’clock†¦. * Every Monday, my class starts at nine o’clock†¦. The omission of â€Å"-s† can be attributed to the fact that Bahasa Malaysia does not require verbs to agree with subjects. However, the ending free form is generalised for all persons to make the learning task easier and this is a common intralingual made by people with diverse native languages like Mr Kamel. 3. Causes and sources of errors and mistakes Interlingual errors are the result of mother tongue influences. Learners transfer/borrow some forms but not others due to two factors such as proto-typicality and language distance (Kellerman, 1979). Malay learners of English commonly make errors in negative sentences. For example: Adryna no coming today. [Adryna tak datang hari ini. ] Such errors are common in pre-verbal negation using no, the same negative construction as in their L1. In order to determine whether transfer is the cause for the occurrence of errors, James (1998), demonstrates that learners with a particular L1 make an error that those with a different L1 do not. He provides a useful summary of these strategies which includes the following; a. False analogy b. Misanalysis c. Incomplete rule application exploiting redundancy d. Overlooking co-occurrence restrictions e. System-simplification It is not clear which strategy is responsible for a particular error. Errors can also be viewed as ‘natural’ or as ‘induced’. For example: a. He played football yesterday. b. He goed home at six. c. He drinked milk. d. He eated dinner. e. He sleeped at eight. Conclusion To conclude, learners’ errors are a part of the learners’ language learning process. Hence, teachers should not penalise students for the errors they made. Instead, teachers should note those errors and devise ways to assist learners to overcome their problems in language learning. It is difficult to decide whether grammatically or acceptability should serve as the criterion for error analysis. If grammatically is chosen, an error can be defined as ‘breach of the rule of the code’ (Corder, 1967). Defining errors in terms of grammatically also necessitates giving consideration to the distinction between overt and covert error: In the field of methodology, there are two schools of thought with regard to learners’ error. Firstly, the school which maintains that if we were to achieve a perfect teaching method, the errors would have never be committed and therefore the occurrence of errors is merely a sign of inadequacy in our teaching techniques. The philosophy of the second school is that we live in an imperfect world and consequently errors will always occur in spite of our very best teaching and learning  methods. One effect has been perhaps to shift the emphasis away from a preoccupation with teaching towards a study of learning. The differences between the two are clearly defined: that the learning of the mother tongue is natural, whereas, we all know that there is no such inevitability about the learning of a second language; that the learning of the mother tongue is part of the whole maturational process of the child, whilst learning a second language normally begins only after the maturational process is complete. A child’s incorrect utterances can be interpreted as being evidence that he is in the process of acquiring language and the errors provide these evidences. Brown and Frazer (1964), point out that the best evidence a child possesses construction rules is the occurrence of systematic errors, since when the child speaks correctly, it is quite possible that he is only repeating something that he has heard. In the case of the second language learner, it is known that we do know some knowledge of what the input has been which we call as the syllabus. The simple fact of presenting a certain linguistic form to a learner in the classroom does not necessarily qualify it for the status of input, for the reason that input ‘is what goes in’, not ‘what is available’ for going in, and we may reasonably suppose that it is the learner who controls this input. This may well be determined by the characteristics of his language acquisition mechanism and not by those of the syllabus. References Mariam Mohd Nor, Abdul Halim Ibrahim, Shubbiah, R (2008). OUM-Linguistics and Language Teaching. Seri Kembangan, Selangor. Open University Malaysia. Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learners’ errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 5, 161-70. Corder, S. P. (1981). Error analysis and interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ames, C. (1998). Errors in language learning and use: Exploring error analysis. London: Longman. Kellerman, E. (1979). Transfer and non-transfer: Where are we now? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2: 37-57. Eltrug, N. S. (1984). Analysis of the Arab Learners’ Errors in Pronunciation of English Utterances in Isolation and Context. Ph. D Dissertation. The University of Kansas. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Paikeday, T. (1985). The native speaker is dead! Toronto: Paikeday Publishing. Rampton, M. B. H. (1990). Displacing the ‘native speaker’: Expertise, af? liation, and inheritance. ELT Journal 44. 2, 97–101. Davies, A. (1991). The native speaker in applied linguistics . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Davies, A. (2003). The native speaker of World Englishes. Journal of Pan-Paci? c Association of Applied Linguistics 6. 1, 43–60